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Expert System Industry In China

The synthetic intelligence market in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms highlighting science and technology as the country’s primary efficient force.

The initial stages of China’s AI development were sluggish and came across substantial obstacles due to absence of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind most Western countries in regards to AI advancement. A bulk of the research was led by scientists who had actually gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually gradually established a national agenda for artificial intelligence development and became among the leading nations in expert system research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to become a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State has a list of « nationwide AI teams » consisting of fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company must lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI development has actually significantly impacted Chinese society in many locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the leading industries that would be the most impacted by further AI release.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in numerous aspects as there are couple of present existing limits. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade limitations planned to restrict China’s access to advanced computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the effects of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the development of generative artificial intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and development of synthetic intelligence in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and innovation for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and advancement did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was difficult so China’s federal government approached these difficulties by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more offering government funds for research study projects. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have belonged to China’s national innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has even more expanded its research study and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research tasks has actually drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy priority for the advancement of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, artificial intelligence was also discussed in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At exact same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion coincided with the Chinese government’s announcement of the « Chinese Intelligence Year, » a significant turning point in China’s development of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released « A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan » (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a strategic innovation that has become a « focus of worldwide competition ». [14]:2 The file urged substantial investment in a variety of tactical areas connected to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the « transferability of social resources » in between economic and military ends is an essential element to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017, »expert system plus » was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The very same year experienced the emergence of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council specified the requirement for enormous skill acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, along with public and private financial investments. [14] A few of the stated motivations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI technique consist of the potential of expert system for commercial change, better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to different fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research. With the development of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released China’s very first big scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly released the guidelines concerning deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on basic generative AI services safety requirements, including specifications for information collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to construct AI policy dialogue with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed concern over AI safety risks, consisting of abuse of data or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began using news anchors produced with generative expert system to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which plans to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s brand-new « AI Tigers ». [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, numerous Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have launched AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be important to the future of worldwide military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make fundamental contributions to standard AI theory and to solidify its location as a global leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become « the primary driving force for China’s commercial updating and financial change » by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the international leader in the development of synthetic intelligence theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have developed a « mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system. » [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government « looks for to meld state planning and control while some operational versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, producing uneven advantages as they expand offshore. » [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a top research priority and ranks AI initially among « frontier markets » that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector often supported by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing generally focused on innovative and applied research. [38] The federal government funding likewise supported several AI R&D in the personal sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study revealed that, while China is massively purchasing all elements of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to national guidance on developing China’s state-of-the-art industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and local commercial advancement and ecosystem. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, heavily focuses on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competitors for computer vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play an essential role in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate collaboration, public-private cooperations, and international partnerships and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top three around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are mainly sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had actually finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and enforcing commitments on AI business, the overall approach to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population creates a massive amount of accessible information for companies and researchers, which uses an essential advantage in the race of huge information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of internet users, producing big amounts of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial acknowledgment is one of the most commonly used AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of information from its locals helps further train and broaden AI abilities. China’s market is not only conducive and important for corporations to further AI R&D but likewise provides remarkable economic potential attracting both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic advancement of the info and communication technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in current years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has actually become the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft procedures specifying that tech companies will be bound to guarantee AI-generated content upholds the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual property rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, companies bear legal obligation for training data and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material might not « incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system. » [51] Before launching a large language model to the general public, business must seek approval from the CAC to certify that the model declines to respond to specific questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that keeps libraries including training data sets typically used for big language models. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers regional business with training information that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually cautioned that the Chinese federal government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese synthetic intelligence model DeepSeek has been reported to decline to answer concerns connecting to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-term economic development. In the past, conventional markets in China have struggled with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, operational costs are expected to lower while a boost in efficiency generates revenue growth. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to conquer adoption barriers including expenses and lack of appropriately trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI development because of rising needs for laborers with sophisticated skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth might be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related industrial development is focused in seaside regions rather than inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military effect

China looks for to construct a « world-class » armed force by « intelligentization » with a specific concentrate on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is looking into different types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial cars at an airshow. A media report released later on revealed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and destroying a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is largely influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and fears of a widening « generational gap » in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China intends to use AI for exploiting big troves of intelligence, generating a typical operating picture, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, choice support, software, automated missile launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, couple of limits exist in between Chinese industrial companies, university lab, the military, and the main government. As a result, the Chinese government has a direct ways of guiding AI advancement priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To further reinforce these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI innovation from industrial companies and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower costs of data identifying to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily appropriate AI applications, possibly granting it legal access to U.S. technology and copyright. [69] Chinese venture capital investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, « particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries, » from buying U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has actually been investing, consisting of « microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy. » [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its design usage prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, specifically given that China faces challenges in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have been operating in the field for over ten years, while roughly the exact same proportion of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research study products. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China especially wish to address military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently developed the very first kids’s academic program in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the previous years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with particular emphasis on user defense, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast innovation adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will stay in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system released the Beijing AI principles requiring important needs in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many nationwide federal governments have established legislation dealing with information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to address brand-new obstacles raised by AI advancement. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory framework categorizing all sort of data collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech companies in China are required to categorize their information into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and deal with data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts related to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI assesses the proof presented and applies relevant legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach unbiased decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology business may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that « increasing celebration management, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate objectives of SCR [wise court reform] » [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually sought to motivate personal tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as « AI champions ». [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for enterprise use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s new « AI Tigers » in 2024. [32] 01. AI has also been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to worldwide AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards securing an international technological dominance – China missed both industrial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to take benefit of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s « rightful » location and to pursue the national renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that « Chinese government authorities showed incredibly eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations, » and recommended that « the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to likewise prioritize cultivating expertise and understanding of AI developments in China » and « funding, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive essential change. » [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: « China might have unrivaled resources and massive untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be smart for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education.  » [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has stunted the development of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI develops obstacles for holistic nationwide security, including the risks that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing effects on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher oppression of employees and more serious social problems. [28]:90 Gao mentions how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to greater capital build-up and political power in fewer economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the main accountable star in the location of generative AI (creating new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI risks intensifying military competition between nations and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation however will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential risk from synthetic intelligence have occurred. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is typically positive regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study carried out throughout 28 countries found that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI exceed the dangers, the greatest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% concurred or strongly concurred that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% thought it needs to be regulated by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely used AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, release of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang area to find Uyghurs is « the very first known example of a federal government deliberately using synthetic intelligence for racial profiling, » [95] which is said to be « one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism. » [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of discontent are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, particularly by local municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.